Mann (1959) conducted a similar study that examined more than 1400 findings regarding personality and leadership in small groups, but he placed less emphasis on how situational factors influenced leadership. He suggested that personality traits could be used to distinguish leaders from nonleaders. His results identifies leaders as strong in the following traits:

• intelligence,
• masculinity,
• adjustment,
• dominance,
• extraversion, and
• conservatism (Northouse, 2007, p.17).

Lord et al. (1986) reassessed Mann's (1959) findings using a more sophisticated procedure called meta-analysis and found that intelligence, masculinity and dominance were significantly related to how individuals perceived leaders (Northouse, 2007, p.17).

Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) conclude on the basis of a qualitative synthesis of earlier research that "leaders are not like other people": they differ from nonleaders on six traits:

• drive,
• the desire to lead,
• honesty and integrity,
• self-confidence,
• cognitive ability,
• and knowledge of the business.

According to these writers, individuals can be born with these traits, they can learn them, or both (Northouse, 2007, p.17)..